Effect of Schemas on Understanding the Social World

Effect of Schemas on Understanding the Social World Zoe Crackett WITH REFERENCE TO RELEVANT RESEARCH STUDIES EVALUATE THE EXTENT TO WHICH OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE SOCIAL WORLD IS CONSTRAINED BY OUR SCHEMAS This[p1] essay looks to assess the degree to which our perception of the social world is driven by how our knowledge is brought together and presented to ourselves. Bartlett (1932) used the concept of schema, which has been defined for this essay, to explain how people can call on subconscious categorisations. Buchanan et al (2009) claim that schematic processing is both efficient and an effective method of understanding but pre-existing schema can mean that the processing is constrained. Cognitive psychologists are concerned with how people perceive others, situations and events within their own social world. To explore the claim the essay uses studies where schema and expectations have been tested such as Bartlett (1932) ‘War of the Ghosts’ story as well as how what we expect can be wrong. Fritz Heider was one of the first psychologists to study social cognition in terms of (how) understanding how people make sense of the social world relates to (concatenation – not sure what this word is) of events. Heider and Simmel (1944) used a series of cartoons to demonstrate how cause and effect works. In the study participants were asked to describe what they saw in the cartoons. In the first group participants were asked just to describe what they saw whilst the other two groups were asked to describe what they saw as if the objects were people. The third group saw the cartoons played backwards. Heider and Simmel found that all but one of the participants in the first group described the cartoons using human terms. In this way Heider claims that people act as â€Å"naà ¯ve psychologists† by trying to make sense of events or people by looking for predictability using cause and effect (Heider and Simmel, cited in Buchanan et al, 2009, p60-61). The term schema defines a type of cognitive structure that may present itself as a typical object or event that a person has knowledge of; this allows the person to process the object or event and act or react accordingly. A person uses schema when they perceive situations and other people to aid them in responding to them. Bartlett (1932) used the term schema when describing how English people retold a Native American folk tale but each time the tale was retold it would change to be more ‘English’. Detail from the original tale would be omitted where it may be thought of as not relevant or altered to something more familiar that the teller was able to relate to (Bartlett, cited in Brace and Roth, 2009, pp131-132[p2]). Social psychologists have identified person,role and event schema. These are mental structures that a person uses that hold knowledge on different types of people, expected behaviour and social situations respectively. The knowledge allows for generalisation of the object or event. For example in Buchanan et al (2009) reference is made to a TV commercial taken with four different camera angles. In the first shot a white youth with a shaven head wearing combat trousers and Doc Marten boots is seen running. From the first shot the assumption of ‘skinhead’ can be used as the description is that which would be attributed to a skinhead. This in turn would lead to thoughts relating to criminal behaviour such as aggression and violence. The second shot shows the youth running towards a man who is smartly dressed. Through the final two shots the viewer is given two more camera angles and sees further information. By the time the viewer sees the fourth shot they may have already formed the opinion that the youth is going to assault the smartly dressed man. However the fourth shot shows the full picture to the viewer; the youth was not running towards the man to assault him but is intent on pushing him out of the way of a pallet of bricks that is about to fall and injure him (Buchanan et al, 2009 p63–64). Buchanan et al (2009) have described schema as generalised representations. In the case of the ‘skinhead’ youth in the above example the generalisation has also invoked stereotypical perceptions that people project on to others. Buchanan et al claim these generalisations leave room for some form of variation however it is not explained how stereotypes are learned. Sometimes how something is perceived can be inaccurate. Tajfel stated that it is possible to over generalise and as a result have a tendency to stereotype (Buchanan et al p66[p3]). An integral feature of schema is that the knowledge they contain is defined as shared knowledge in other words it is not just particular to a person or event. Schema needs knowledge to be shared in order that it is effective. Schema is self-confirming. By providing expectations based on what a person thinks they know or understand to be true, what is actually presented can be distorted, as in the Bartlett experiment. By self-confirming it supports the claim that schema constrain peoples understanding of the social world (Buchanan et al, 2009, pp65-68). In an experiment by Darley and Gross (1983) college students were shown a video tape of a character called Hannah and asked to critique her academic ability. The students were introduced to her as being either from a high or low socio-economic status. Some students were also shown a video of ‘Hannah’ answering a set of questions in an oral exam. Whilst there was no apparent pattern as to whether ‘Hannah’ was answering more questions correctly or incorrectly those that saw Hannah as higher socio-economic status as well as the exam judged her to have higher academic ability. Darley and Gross surmised that although the information can be the same information is processed according to expectations (Darley and Gross, cited in Buchanan et al, 2009). The Darley and Gross study demonstrates how schema can simplify lots of information, this also allows relevant information to be extracted more quickly. A person simply needs to access processing knowledge in order for that person to understand what is happening however as demonstrated by the tv commercial showing the youth if only one part is shown the subsequent response can be inaccurate and the person may look for sign posts from within their own expectations rather than taking cues from their present environment. As such that person makes a fundamental attribution error (FAE) (Buchanan et al p75). Kahneman and Tversky (1973) explored how FAEs can be made easily. They used short vignettes to describe a seemingly random person. The participants were given deliberately vague descriptions of a person and they were asked to judge the likelihood that the person described was a lawyer. Participants were told that the person described had come from a room of people where either seventy or thirty per cent were lawyers. In both conditions the participants gave the probability the person described was a lawyer was fifty per cent. The participants ignored relevant information that they had been given and focused on the descriptions they read (Kahneman and Tversky cited in Buchanan et al, 2009) In conclusion schema assists a person to cut out a lot of irrelevant information and process other detail quickly, however as a result other important information can be accidentally discarded. For schema to work they require knowledge to be shared with others so that everyone is able to respond. People make assumptions based on what they think they know and apply it to the situations they see. As demonstrated by the TV commercial unless a person sees the all the information at the same time their judgements can be wrong but also it demonstrates, through the extra pieces of information on each shot, that they can be changed. Generally schema can work well as left to their own devices it is possible for a person to make errors in judgement. The claim made by Buchanan et al (2009) is that a person is compelled to make a judgement in the social world based on pre-existing patterns of thought is to some extent correct, however the person also has the ability to change. 1329 words References Brace, N. and Roth, I. (2009) ‘Memory: structures, processes and skills’ in Miell, D., Phoenix, A. and Thomas, K. (eds) Book 1 Introduction and Chapters 6 – 9 DSE212 Mapping Psychology. Milton Keynes, Open University pp 111 – 170 Buchanan, K., Anand, P., Joffe, H. and Thomas, K. (2009) ‘Perceiving and understanding the social world’ in Miell, D., Phoenix, A. and Thomas, K. (eds) Book 1 Introduction and Chapters 6 – 9 DSE212 Mapping Psychology. Milton Keynes, Open University pp 57 – 109 1 [p1]An effective introduction which states the issue and states how you mean to tackle the essay [p2]Good use of evidence to support your point here. [p3]Good use of this example to illustrate how schematic processing can produce generalisations and stereotyping.

My Time At Richardson Essay

In the years before attending Richardson, I have dealt with several traumatic experiences, including the death of my father. Through these experiences, I have gained the knowledge and understanding necessary to be a more empathetic and caring individual.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Dealing with something as severe as losing a loved one, a person can either lose themselves in the sadness, or learn from the experience, and take with them the maturity and understanding that also accompanies a death.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I am able to use my past experiences for the better. I have grown strong in my faith and developed the coping skills necessary to endure difficult trials. In my years at Richardson, I was able to reflect my values through compassion, understanding, and kindness towards others.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have learned not to judge others who are different from me. Diversity is a wonderful element in life, although it may take some a lifetime to discover this. Being different is what makes humankind so amazing. My time at Richardson has taught me how to accept others who are unique. With these life skills, I am able to enter the community and truly make a difference in the world.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Richardson has broadened my horizons in many ways. Academically, I have mastered a skill which will carry me throughout a lifetime. Emotionally, I have matured and grown into a strong and independent adult. And socially, I have established solid friendships that will carry me throughout my adult life. Attending Richardson has given me the foundation to continue learning, growing, and becoming a better person.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   I have been able to reflect on my past experiences and use those times to better understand the world around me. I have been able to demonstrate my moral values and compassion towards others during my time at Richardson.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In my four years at Richardson, I have given my best effort at all I have attempted. I have helped my peers in every way possible. I have taken any opportunity to improve the school environment, as well as lend a concerned and friendly hand to those in need. I have applied myself fully in achieving my goals and helping those around me to do the same. To that end, Richardson has equipped me with the knowledge and ability to enter the workforce and the community with great understanding, as well as acceptance for those around me. I have learned to broaden my horizons in all facets and for that; I have become a better person.

Teen Pregnancies Children And Teens About Sex - 1787 Words

Ginger Rogers Professor Rivers ECN 1101 24 November 2015 Teen Pregnancies Many parent today are afraid to talk with their children and teens about sex and the importance of safe sex. With teen pregnancy dropping it is important for teen to know about safe sex, prevention of pregnancy and what options they have if they become pregnant. Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) show that â€Å"in 2013 there was a total of 273,105 babies born to teens ages 15-19 but this is a drop of 10% from 2012† (Reproductive) It is very important for parents to get involved with their teens both girls and boys, and talk to them about sex, relationships and prevention; even though, many parents are relying on our school systems, doctors, nurses and other resources, to teach our children about these topics. â€Å"Parents that get involved in their teens lives, and talk with their teens about sex, relationships, contraceptives, and child birth are having sex at a later age, more likely to use contraceptives and have sex less often.† (Parent) Sex Education is taught in middle and high school today, and in many places of the world as young as age 4 and about sexuality. Most sex education classes taught today do not cover contraceptive and are mainly abstinence-only-till-marriage programs. â€Å"89% of Americans believe that contraception should be taught in sex education,† (Effective Sex) as no abstinence-only-till-marriage programs have shown proof that they help to prevent teens having sex. â€Å"Yet theShow MoreRelatedEssay on Teenage Pregnancy and Prevention1320 Words   |  6 PagesAlthough teen pregnancy has declined in the past, the United States is still number one out of all industrialized countries of teen pregnancies. Therefore, implementing an in depth sex education class covering parenting in schools will allow teens to fully understand he consequences of having protected or unprotected sex. All children deserve love and care from their parents. The United States has a higher rate of teen pregnancy than other countries because one is not open to talk about sex with aRead MoreTeen Pregnancy Essay1121 Words   |  5 Pages5/6 11/20/2017 Teen Pregnancy The fearless of all parents who have teenagers is pregnancy. Nowadays, teen pregnancy is a serious problem. Teenage have a lack of skills to handle a pregnancy. So that impact strongly on the future of a young woman. Teen pregnancy is associated with negative consequences for adolescents for three reasons: lack of education, medical complication, uncertainty about the future, and financial difficulties. First, the main causes of teenage pregnancy are the lack of educationRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy Is A Big Topic On Today s Society861 Words   |  4 PagesTeenage pregnancy is a big topic in today’s society. Teens are criticized with negative comments about having a baby at a young age. There have been teens as young as ten years old that has been pregnant. A lot of teenage pregnancies are not planned but happen because of lack of knowledge about sex. There is anyways to prevent the negative comments and young pregnancies. Parents have to understand their children are not always going to be babies. They are going to become curious about their bodiesRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy Sections I And II1738 Words   |  7 PagesTopic: Teenage Pregnancy Sections I and II Primary Audience: My primary audience is the citizens of the U.S.; this includes tax payers, parents, state officials, education officials and teen moms. In the U.S. we have several teens that are experiencing unprotected sex, without any knowledge of pregnancy prevention or sex education. When teen girls become pregnant, this also affects the parents. This is a huge responsibility and burden for all involved parties. Health benefits are needed forRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy and the Media Essay1531 Words   |  7 PagesThere is a great debate on whether or not mass media has an influence on teenage pregnancy. A study done by the RAND Corporation shows that teens are twice as likely to have sex or engage in sexual acts if they see similar sexual behavior in the media. Many objects in the media that involve sex target teens. Reality TV shows and teen dramas often portray the cool kids as the ones who are having sex (Chandra).Today’s teens are highly influenced by what they see in the media and this can change theirRead MoreThe System Of Sex Education Essay1034 Words   |  5 PagesThe System of Sex Education Abstinence education should be a part of sex education in schools because it is the best way to avoid the risks of unsafe sex. Children are only taught how to have sex, and they believe the pullout method is effective. Some children are not ready for sex, but they do it anyway because they are not told to wait. Abstinence should be taught as part of sex education because sexual transmitted disease, teen pregnancy, and abortion rates would decrease. Sex education in schoolsRead MoreTeenage Pregnancy And Teen Pregnancy1057 Words   |  5 PagesTeenage pregnancy is a common thing here in America. It seems teens are getting pregnant more than the average married couple. There are some risk factors teen moms face and there is also another great turn outs. There is a major difference between the two. It’s important to tell teens the turnouts of teen pregnancy for the good and bad parts. There are risks of having sex, teen moms can make a difference for her and the baby, the risk of having HIV and/or any other STD’s, and the effects on theRead MoreThe Problem with Teenage Childbearing in the United States1039 Words   |  4 Pagessocial problem in the United States. The rates of teen parenting are at is lowest, but the numbers still remain an issue. Teen parenting has been associated with negative outcomes for the parents and their children. Many teenage parents and their families are unaware of the disparities when becoming a teen parent. With outcomes of teen childbearing being identified, teen pregnancy prevention needs to be further addressed. Addressing teen pregnancy and methods of prevention will help strengthen familiesRead MoreDecreasing Teen Pregnancy Essay example928 Words   |  4 PagesDecreasing Teen Pregnancy Decreasing teen pregnancy has been a constant battle for the United States in the past few years. America has the highest teen pregnancy rate in the western part of the world despite not being the leader in sexually active teenagers. The main problem is that here in the United States we do not educate our children enough on having safe sex. Our children end up learning on their own and eventually end up having a child from the lack of knowledge they have. They alsoRead MoreTeen Pregnancy Essay1426 Words   |  6 Pageswhat is going to help reduce the alarmingly high rate of teen pregnancies has not ceased. Many argue over whether abstinence-only should be taught in high school and if it is the key to reducing the high teen pregnancy rate. From my standpoint, I believe that it should be taught. However, it should be accompanied by the teachings of birth control along with other contraceptives and how to use them. The fact of the matter is that teen pregnancies continue to be a prevalent problem and teaching abstinence

Eco-Efficiency and Eco-Effectiveness of Organizations - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1073 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/09/17 Category Environment Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? Qn: In today’s global environment, why are eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness important to organizations In recent years, much emphasis has been put on the importance of eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness due to raising concern of global warming and the environment in general. Basically, eco-efficiency means reducing the environmental impacts of goods and resource intensity throughout the entire life cycle to a level at least in line with the Earth’s estimated carrying capacity; while at the same time satisfying human needs in short reducing the environment impact of products and resource used for human needs. Eco-effectiveness on the other hand means doing it right, instead of reducing the harm of wrong things. This essay will discuss in detail the benefits and reasons why eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness is important to organizations and the concept of sustainable development with examples from some companies in the world today. There are many benef its of eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness to firms. One of the benefits is economic benefits. Companies have long been thought of as profit-maximizing entities which are expected to engage in activities that meet the financial responsibility of the firm. In recent years, the concept of corporate social responsibility is more highly regarded. Hence, fund managers are more inclined to investing in companies that are deemed environmentally responsible; due to the fact that companies that are not environmentally responsible might end up with the wrong side of the law. For example, King and Lennox (2002) suggests that an increase in environment performance translates into improvement of reputation, an increase in investors trust and a decrease of investors risk. Therefore, with the importance of attracting investors and strengthening business ties, it is important for organizations to sustain eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness (Hay et al. 2005). Eco-efficiency benefits can also be reaped nation-wide. As De Simmone and Popoff (2000) suggests, eco efficiency can help developed countries improve their resource productivity and encourage developing countries to reach their full potential. By becoming eco-efficient and eco-effective, the cost of manufacturing a certain product or providing a certain service will be reduced as well. A fine example is 3M – through pollution-prevention projects, the company has saved over 750 million dollars (McDonough and Braungart 2001). Additionally, it is essential to the government to enable the society to be sustainable. Developing countries – giving back to the locals. Finding work for them to do instead of replacing them with eco-unfriendly machinery. In developed countries, some people are willing to pay more for â€Å"green† products as their physiological needs are already satisfied, and hence move up the Maslow hierarchy of needs, seeking esteem and self-actualization instead. Recently, that behaviour has been dubbed as â€Å"lazy environmentalism† (Can Capitalism save the Planet? , New York Times) – and organizations are jumping on the wagon to help consumers achieve that sort of need. Therefore, eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness are important to organizations because they help to attain a reputation for being environmentally friendly, and hence help their consumers achieve their â€Å"lazy environmentalism† needs without sacrifice, generating profits at the same time (DeSimone Popoff 2000). Pressure has also been made to firms to be eco-efficient and eco-effective from groups such as Greenpeace. An article by Flveash (Fiveash 2010) shows that Dell is pressured by Greenpeace to remove all hazardous chemicals from its entire product. Therefore, with such large and influential organizations campaigning for such reasons, it is important for organizations to keep themselves in good media light. As the market for most products are not in scarce supply, being eco-friendly in the public eye is the key to being competitive against other organizations. Hence, allowing a â€Å"cutting edge† and â€Å"unique selling point† to products, in this instance, environmentally friendliness will prove crucial to organizations to stand out from competitors. As natural resources gets scarce, firms has realised the importance of sustainable management and development in recent years. In short sustainability means the ability of humans to ensure that it meets the need of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The Brundtland Commission Report (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) has emphasized the importance of sustainable development and forced it to the top of the agenda of the United Nations and the multilateral development banks. Without sustainable management and development, our future generations would be left with little or no resources. Sustai nability of businesses through protecting resources? For example, eco-tourism – if natural habitat of tribes destroyed, there will be no such thing anymore. Overfarming? —Increase in demand, decrease in supply. Therefore, prices of raw materials will increase, not a benefit to businesses in long run. Might as well show some effort now to prevent it. Through the reasons above, we can see that it is of much importance for managers in todays global environment to be aware of the environmental impacts of the firms product and services instead of just working towards a lower input and a higher output. This is linked corporate social responsibility. Corporate social responsibility is basically a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model as such firms do more than what they are required to do under applicable laws and regulations. As stated by Hays Stavins (2005) a firm must consistently reduce its emission of air and water pollution by more th an it is required to do by environment authorities to be considered as practicing CSR. CONCLUSION – State the importance of eco-efficiency and effectiveness and weigh the advantages over disadvantages. Eco-efficiency is based on bringing the two eco dimensions of economy and ecology together to relate product or service value to environmental influence. It is a concept that balances the economical output of a company from an environmentally sound input. For example, an organizations eco-efficiency can be formulated by weighing its value profile agaisnt its environmental profile where eco-efficiency ratios such as net sales per energy/material consumption can be produced. This eco-efficiency concept is a measurement framework for the progress of economic and environmental sustainability. When an organization increases its prosperity with lesser activity and meets or exceeds the stipulations of environmental regulations, it is eco-effective. Hence, the balance of the two dimensions of eco are vital in this modern society where being environmentally conscious would result in economical benefits. Eco-efficiency has moved away from the Industrial Revolution age where gargantuan output of products translates to large proportions of environmentally toxic by-products. On the other hand, although being eco-efficient might increase output costs, people in developed countries are willing to pay more for esteem and self-actualisation purposes. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Eco-Efficiency and Eco-Effectiveness of Organizations" essay for you Create order